![\"\"](\"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/files\/2026\/04\/IMG_0608.jpg\")
<\/p>\n<\/p>\n
M<\/strong>anagement practices are crucial in determining forage production and quality in forage systems. Among them, fertilization is essential to supply nutrients needed by plants. Over the past decades, the fluctuation of costs of fertilizers has elevated the importance of improving nutrient use efficiency, while also seeking alternative strategies to reduce off-farm inputs into forage systems. Understanding the main points for improving nutrient use efficiency and distribution in forage systems can help improve feasibility and sustainability in forage systems. Soil testing<\/strong> is a crucial management tool to monitor soil fertility and pH and allows for proper nutrient amounts to be applied as needed by forage crops. Routine soil testing can help save money on lime and fertilizer applications, while also decreasing nutrient losses and runoff. Soil testing should be conducted at least every two years and, in order to have reliable information to develop your fertilization program, soil samples must be collected correctly.<\/p>\n The general recommendation is to collect 15 to 20 samples to 6 inches depth in a field up to 10 acres. Samples should be collected in a zigue-zague <\/em>pattern throughout the area and placed in a bucket, then homogenized prior to sending up to a pint to the lab for analysis. Besides providing proper nutrient recommendations, routine soil<\/em> testing allows for the maintenance of adequate soil pH. Improper soil pH will impact nutrient availability and root development affecting overall forage stand establishment, production, and persistence. Lime is frequently used to increase soil pH and may be required to be applied 6-8 months ahead of the establishment of a new forage stand, depending on the current soil pH. Typically, by raising the soil pH, nutrients, as N and P, increase their availability. However, the target soil pH varies with the forage crop being used and, in general, legumes have higher nutrient and pH requirements than warm-season grasses, for example.<\/p>\n Once you have your soil report recommendations in hand, make sure to choose the fertilizer source that best fits your needs, so you do not apply unnecessary nutrients. Commercial fertilizer blends that supply N, P, K, and micronutrients have specific combinations and can be a source to apply more than needed nutrients for your area which represents increased costs. For example, if your soil test report shows that no P is needed, then you should select a fertilizer blend that has no P. Your local Extension agent can help you choose the appropriate fertilizer source to use based on your needs. Overall, the use of organic fertilizer<\/em> <\/strong>sources (ex. animal manure, chicken litter) has been increasing over the last decades due to attractive costs and high local availability. When using organic amendments, in order to properly meet forage crops\u2019 needs, it is important to know the fertilizer composition and understand the rate to what the nutrient (s) is released. Some organic fertilizers may also be a source to increase organic matter in the soil overtime which is particular important to improve soil fertility and resilience.<\/p>\n For any source of fertilizer<\/strong>, the nutrient composition of that source, time, and rate of application will impact the effectiveness of its use and have environmental implications. Generally, when we are developing our fertilization plan for a given forage, the determination of how much fertilizer needs to be applied will depend on the nutrient levels available in the soil and the expected forage production during that growing season. For N fertilizer, it is recommended to split apply the total rate over the growing season aiming to optimize the absorption by plants and reduce runoff and leaching to water bodies.<\/p>\n Management practices and the choice of species<\/em><\/strong> will also have an important role in the nutrient input required. Improved forages, such as bermudagrass, and legumes may have higher fertilizer needs than bahiagrass, for example. However, it is important to properly address their needs based on the management that is applied. Intensity and frequency of grazing or cutting for hay production may require different levels of nutrients to be replenished based on the amount being exported. Under grazing, rotational management<\/em> can be an alley to help with nutrient distribution throughout a pasture once animals stay for limited periods of time in a given area and avoid creating areas where animal excreta are accumulated which often happens on shaded and waterer areas on pastures under continuous stocking.<\/p>\n Thus, the incorporation of legumes into forage systems can help with inputting N through biological fixation and increase soil fertility. Legumes are only able to fix N in association with specific bacteria which requires the seeds to be inoculated. Then, N fixation ranges from 40 to 100 lb N\/acre but, it will depend on the forage yield. The organic N fixed can be available for companion grasses in mixtures or to the subsequent grass crop. The use of legumes in forages systems has been increasing aiming for improved forage production, nutrient cycling, and animal performance, especially in low-input systems where there is little to no replenishment of nutrients routinely.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":" By Liliane Silva, Clemson Forages Specialist Management practices are crucial in determining forage production and quality in forage systems. Among them, fertilization is essential to supply nutrients needed by plants. Over the past decades, the fluctuation of costs of fertilizers has elevated the importance of improving nutrient use efficiency, while also seeking alternative strategies to […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4095,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"inline_featured_image":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[1],"tags":[],"coauthors":[122660],"class_list":["post-298","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-uncategorized"],"fimg_url":false,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/298","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4095"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=298"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/298\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=298"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=298"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=298"},{"taxonomy":"author","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/coauthors?post=298"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":296,"date":"2026-04-20T20:10:14","date_gmt":"2026-04-20T20:10:14","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/?p=296"},"modified":"2026-04-20T20:10:39","modified_gmt":"2026-04-20T20:10:39","slug":"managing-fescue-hay-during-the-2026-spring-drought","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/managing-fescue-hay-during-the-2026-spring-drought\/","title":{"rendered":"Managing Fescue Hay During the 2026 Spring Drought"},"content":{"rendered":" By\u00a0<\/strong>Christopher LeMaster, Clemson Extension Livestock Agent and\u00a0<\/strong>Dr. Liliane Silva, Clemson Extension Forage Specialist<\/strong><\/p>\n Following a dry fall and winter, much of our region is now classified in Extreme Drought (D3)<\/strong>. For a cool-season grass like tall fescue, which relies on spring moisture for the bulk of its annual forage production, this rainfall deficit is a primary concern for the upcoming hay season. Additionally, producers are managing this drought alongside a 50% increase in fertilizer and fuel costs<\/strong>. When input prices are high and projected yields are low due to weather-related challenges, management strategies must be adjusted to focus on efficiency and stand persistence.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n Harvesting and Clipping Strategies<\/strong><\/p>\n In a dry spring, there is rarely a single “correct” answer for when to harvest. Instead, there are some considerations to be made:<\/p>\n <\/p>\n Both management strategies rely heavily on timely rainfall this spring and on properly managed, healthy hayfields.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n Cutting Height and Management Strategies<\/strong><\/p>\n In an attempt to cope with the impacts of drought and high off-farm input costs, it will be crucial to consider the following:<\/p>\n <\/p>\n The Economic Reality<\/strong><\/p>\n The production cost increases significantly as off-farm input prices rise and crop yields are reduced due to weather-related conditions. It is essential to have a sharp pencil<\/strong> when calculating your actual cost of production per bale and determining how to price your hay this year. Unfortunately, local hay prices must reflect the sharp increases in fertilizer and fuel costs, as well as the lower-than-average yields we are seeing across the region. As you work through these numbers, please feel free to reach out to your local agent for assistance in evaluating your specific situation.<\/p>\n While there is no clear-cut solution for every farm, the goal remains the same: capture as much quality as possible while ensuring the fescue stand survives the summer and persists over time. To achieve persistence, it is essential to apply effective management strategies that support the health and strength of the stand over time, therefore, contributing to resilient stands that can withstand challenging weather conditions. Focusing on optimizing the resilience of the perennial stands requires proper management throughout the entire season, year after year and oftentimes adjustments during challenges each year so that they remain productive once the weather pattern shifts.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":" By\u00a0Christopher LeMaster, Clemson Extension Livestock Agent and\u00a0Dr. Liliane Silva, Clemson Extension Forage Specialist Following a dry fall and winter, much of our region is now classified in Extreme Drought (D3). For a cool-season grass like tall fescue, which relies on spring moisture for the bulk of its annual forage production, this rainfall deficit is a […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4095,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"inline_featured_image":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[122668],"tags":[],"coauthors":[122660],"class_list":["post-296","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-forage-and-pasture-management"],"fimg_url":false,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/296","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4095"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=296"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/296\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=296"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=296"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=296"},{"taxonomy":"author","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/coauthors?post=296"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":259,"date":"2026-01-30T15:51:25","date_gmt":"2026-01-30T15:51:25","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/?p=259"},"modified":"2026-04-16T17:39:37","modified_gmt":"2026-04-16T17:39:37","slug":"grazing-management-methods-for-cow-calf-operations-in-south-carolina","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/grazing-management-methods-for-cow-calf-operations-in-south-carolina\/","title":{"rendered":"Grazing management methods for cow-calf operations in South Carolina"},"content":{"rendered":" By\u00a0Andrea Oyuela Zavala, M.S. student<\/p>\n Effective grazing management directly impacts forage production and quality, which in turn affects livestock production.\u202f When designing management practices for a forage-livestock system, it is important to properly understand the needs of livestock and forages to balance them, and to plan for forage species and distribution of production and quality throughout the season to meet specific animal needs and performance.<\/p>\n In South Carolina, livestock systems are based on forages due to its favorable weather conditions, which support productive stands of perennial forages and still allow the use of annual forage species. In most years, it is possible to rely on grazing perennial species for close to 9 months, but in the remaining months, the use of conserved forages, additional annual grazing plantings, and supplementation is necessary. A clear understanding of this seasonality of production enables producers to choose appropriate forage options and to adjust grazing management and stocking rates to enhance the use of grazed forages and to minimize reliance on off-farm inputs due to their costs.<\/p>\n To successfully implement a grazing system, it is important to properly understand forage species and livestock needs, and the operation\u2019s goals and resources available. Generally, continuous grazing and rotational grazing are the most commonly used grazing methods. Continuous grazing is when animals are stocked on a single pasture for the entire grazing season or for extended periods. This approach minimizes labor; however, it carries a higher risk of overgrazing and reduced overall forage production because animals can select what they want to eat and leave the rest (Silva et al., 2022).<\/p>\n Under rotational grazing, a pasture is divided into paddocks that cycle between grazing and intervals of rest\u202f\u2014\u202fa schedule that prevents over\u2011 or under\u2011grazing, rebuilds plant energy reserves, promotes more uniform forage harvest by animals, and spreads manure more evenly (Silva\u202fet\u202fal.,\u202f2022). The system does require extra fences and the labor of regular moves (Silva\u202fet\u202fal.,\u202f2022). The way to do this is to divide<\/strong> your pasture into paddocks and rotate them every 3 to 7 days, usually. There are several variations of this management with more intensive rotations. Then, generally, the recommended resting interval is 25 to 30 days; throughout the season and based on the forage species used, this may be adjusted to avoid overly mature forage or overgrazing.<\/p>\n Creep grazing is another<\/strong> available grazing method that allows calves to access a nearby paddock with higher-quality forage while their mothers remain on the main pasture. Most creeping gates will provide forages of high nutritional value for calves, most often legumes or grass-legume mixtures. This method uses a small gate that allows only the calves to pass. This targeted nutrition boosts calves\u2019 performance but requires a dedicated creep gate to separate the two groups (Silva\u00a0et\u00a0al.,\u00a02022). Creep grazing works best when milk supply drops, forage quality declines, or you plan to maintain calves after weaning. Calves gain weight faster, and cows maintain their body condition because a fence separates them from the competition. University of Georgia trials measuring calf weight gain in creep grazing showed that calf daily gains jumped from 1.38 to 2.10 lb, adding around 75 lb by weaning when calves grazed pearl millet (Stewart, 2017).<\/p>\n Strip Grazing is a<\/strong> method that uses temporary electric fencing to allow animals to graze an area for a short period of time, then periodically provides access to another strip ahead as needed. This practice is commonly used with stockpiled forages (such as tall fescue or bermudagrass). However, it can supplement animal diets with higher-quality forage such as winter annuals (Silva et al., 2025). <\/strong><\/p>\n Main considerations to decide which grazing method you should use:<\/strong><\/p>\n <\/p>\n REFERENCES <\/strong><\/p>\n <\/p>\n <\/p>\n <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":" By\u00a0Andrea Oyuela Zavala, M.S. student Effective grazing management directly impacts forage production and quality, which in turn affects livestock production.\u202f When designing management practices for a forage-livestock system, it is important to properly understand the needs of livestock and forages to balance them, and to plan for forage species and distribution of production and quality […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4095,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"inline_featured_image":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[122668],"tags":[],"coauthors":[122660],"class_list":["post-259","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-forage-and-pasture-management"],"fimg_url":false,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/259","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4095"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=259"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/259\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=259"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=259"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=259"},{"taxonomy":"author","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/coauthors?post=259"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":257,"date":"2026-01-26T22:41:08","date_gmt":"2026-01-26T22:41:08","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/?p=257"},"modified":"2026-04-16T17:40:23","modified_gmt":"2026-04-16T17:40:23","slug":"winter-damage-and-management-considerations-for-forage-livestock-systems-in-south-carolina","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/winter-damage-and-management-considerations-for-forage-livestock-systems-in-south-carolina\/","title":{"rendered":"Winter damage and management considerations for forage-livestock systems in South Carolina"},"content":{"rendered":" By Liliane Silva, Forages Specialist, Clemson University<\/p>\n <\/p>\n Cool-season forages are widely used in South Carolina forage-livestock operations. In the upstate region, most operations rely on tall fescue stands as the basis of their forage systems, either planted in monoculture or mixed with cool- and warm-season species. Statewide, we also rely on cool-season annual forages (e.g., grasses, legumes, brassicas) to extend the grazing season into the fall and winter months, either by planting them in prepared seedbeds or by overseeding them into perennial warm-season stands. Whether you have a cool-season monoculture or a mixed stand, you may have noticed signs of cold injury due to the prolonged cold temperatures, snow, and ice formation that we have experienced since Fall.<\/p>\n Over the past few years, we have experienced dry late summer and\/or fall periods, and this past year was no different, which impacted germination and stand development. However, this season we experienced a combination of a prolonged dry period and lower temperatures since early Fall, which has delayed planting and seedling growth and caused varying levels of plant cold injury across the state.<\/p>\n The optimal temperature range for cool-season forage growth is 65\u201378\u00b0F. Below 50\u00b0F, plant growth slows down. At temperatures near\/at freezing, growth stops completely. The prolonged exposure of forages to subfreezing temperatures, and later to snow and ice formation, can damage plants, as plant cells may rupture or burst when they freeze. For example, Figure 1 was taken on January 22, 2026, and shows cold injury in cool-season annual forages planted in late October by overseeding a bermudagrass stand in Blackville, SC.<\/p>\n Figure 1.<\/strong> Cold injury in cool-season forages in an overseeded bermudagrass stand in Blackville, SC.<\/p>\n Cold tolerance may vary among forage species and varieties (Figure 2), so the level of the cold injury or damage observed and the plant\u2019s ability to recover may vary. Also, the plant\u2019s vegetative stage at the time it was exposed to more intensive damage can be another factor influencing its response. The warmer temperatures we experienced during the week of January 5th<\/sup> signaled to plants that proper conditions for growth were present, only to be affected by the latest weather conditions we are experiencing. Therefore, over the next days and weeks, it will be important to assess the level of cold injury and damage you are observing in your fields and to understand the management options you should consider.<\/p>\n Figure 2.<\/strong> Cold damage on radish (left), wheat (middle), and oat (right).<\/p>\n In areas of the state that have experienced snow accumulation, snow insulation can help protect forage plants from freezing temperatures and wind, while moderating temperature changes and retaining some moisture. However, all those factors depend on the amount and depth of snow, the duration it lasted, and the plants’ cold tolerance levels, among others. Below are common questions and considerations to help with the next steps in your planning and management for this season.<\/p>\n As usual, I would like to emphasize that you should reach out to your local livestock and forages Extension agent or Forages Specialist if you need further information, have questions and\/or need to discuss specifics of challenges and issues you are facing in your operations. There is no \u201cone size fits all<\/em>\u201d in managing forage-livestock systems, and in this short publication, I cannot cover all the questions one may have. Your questions may be the same as others’, but the answer we give you needs to take into account your operations\u2019 resources, goals, and infrastructure \u2013 so it will be tailored to you\/your operation.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n Some considerations:<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n The first step may be to assess cold damage and injury in your fields. The next bullet point explains what you should look for. But assessing your fields over the next days will help determine your next steps and plan.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n Generally, the main symptoms of cold weather in forage crops include chlorosis (yellowing), tissue necrosis (especially on the tips of leaves exposed to cold wind), leaf rolling and wilting, and reduced growth; lodging can also occur. The continued exposure to sub- and freezing temperatures may further injure and\/or damage plants, exacerbating the issues previously described.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n Many cool-season forages can tolerate subfreezing temperatures for short periods, even with snowfall, but this depends heavily on the forage species and variety’s cold tolerance. Also, on other factors such as plant development stage, stand health, topography\/slope (prone to wind damage), and soil and air temperatures. For recently planted perennial or annual cool-season stands, the stage of development the plants were in before the drastic cold event(s) will strongly influence their recovery and, depending on the level of damage, can lead to winter kill.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n This is a common question that many producers are facing now. It depends on how severe the cold injury\/damage was and whether the forage stand is ready to be grazed. Sometimes, the actual cold damage will only be visible days after the main cold event hits, which is why it is recommended to assess the stand over the next days.<\/p>\n In conditions where the plants were largely damaged, and yellowing of the whole plants is evident in stands, then, it might be worth grazing what is possible to be able to use the forage, even if it means fencing off parts of a field sometimes. If the growing points of the plants were killed due to winter kill, the plants are unable to continue developing leaves, so this can be observed in the field to assess plant damage. Some cool-season forages have a strong ability to produce lateral tillers once the apical dominance (apical meristem dies) is broken; this should be assessed on a case-by-case basis.<\/p>\n If you are able to graze your cool-season stands, be careful to leave enough leaf area\/proper stubble height behind so the plants can withstand the lower temperatures expected over the next few weeks. Additionally, allowing the plants a proper regrowth period after being grazed will be essential. Generally speaking, when we refer to the regrowth interval of cool-season forages, we may say 4 to 6 weeks, given the variation in forage growth during the fall and winter months. Avoiding overgrazing stands now will help to keep plants healthy and give them better chances of reduced cold-related issues later on.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n First and foremost, as of today (01\/26\/2026), the temperature ranges we are forecasted for the next 10 days may not be conducive to adequate germination and\/or early growth of cool-season forage seedlings. Additionally, seedlings may be injured with the subfreezing temperatures we should continue to have in the next 10 days. Then, assessing annual cool-season stands may determine the options available. Replanting or planting late (during late winter\/spring) will limit the amount of forages produced during the season until it starts to warm up again and the changes in photoperiod and temperature ranges signal to cool-season forages that their life cycle has ended. In other words, I would rather consider on a case-by-case basis, but most of the time, replanting now will signify an economical investment that we may not have enough forage production due to the short season for those stands. Therefore, this must be considered by the producer before taking an action towards replanting and I highly recommend discussing this with your local Extension agent first.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n Tall fescue stands are likely to do well when properly managed. Tall fescue has a waxy layer on its leaves that reduces damage caused by lower temperatures. It can also hold its forage quality better in comparison to some of the other cool-season forages, but it is still prone to losses in quality when leaves are damaged and start to become necrotic.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n Forage mixtures can vary in composition, but here I am mostly referring to combinations of grasses, legumes, and maybe brassicas. If you planted brassicas last Fall like me, you may have noticed they had some cold damage since Nov\/Dec. In our research plots, brassicas are mixed with grasses and legumes, so even while they were struggling due to the lower temperatures, we were still able to continue to graze our trials due to the mixture compositions. Additionally, having other species in the mixtures allowed us to see that areas where we had more diverse patches with all components growing, the brassicas were able to withstand the colder weather better than where they were more exposed. Forage mixtures generally allow for improved forage production and quality distribution, but in this scenario of cold damage, they can also allow for microclimate protection under fuller coverage, depending on the mixture of annual cool-season forages used. Then, some species are more cold-tolerant than others, such as oat versus cereal rye and wheat. Having diverse forage mixtures can be an \u201cinsurance\u201d for seasons that present greater challenges, such as this year, as some species may withstand the challenges and persist while others may die in the mixture.<\/p>\n \u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n The best approach is to implement effective management strategies to support healthy, persistent stands. Among the main strategies are proper fertilization, especially of N, P, and K levels, to support plant production, and the plant\u2019s \u201cimmune system\u201d to support it under challenging conditions. Then, the grazing management used will be crucial to allow plants to properly recover after grazing events by restoring leaf area and energy reserves, and ensuring persistence over time. Following research-based recommendations for grazing management, especially regarding target entrance height, stubble height, and nutrient replenishment, can support better forage production and quality throughout the season.<\/p>\n Although extreme weather events are unusual, we are starting to see trends of these events becoming more frequent over the past decades. Therefore, planning ahead can be the best approach to help mitigate future issues moving forward. Some of the points to consider when planning ahead will be what cold tolerant forage varieties are adapted and available to your region that you can use. For information on this, you should consult Dr. Silva\u2019s publication on \u201c2024-2025 Cool-season Forage Results from the Edisto and Sandhill RECs Demonstration Plots\u201d which is updated yearly with the results from the demonstration plots managed that year. This provides information from newer forage grass, legumes and brassica varieties from local areas in SC. Additionally, implementing a mindset to enhance the resilience of forage systems and the operation as a whole is crucial. When addressing the resilience of the forage systems, we will think about strategies to improve management that support enhanced production, sustainability and feasibility. That may look different from producer to producer, but, will require one to think about the forage demand and supply, strategies to cope with periods of shortage in production and what can help support dry matter with lower costs, among other factors.<\/p>\n \u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n \u00a0<\/strong>What about my dormant warm-season perennial grass stands (e.g., bahiagrass and bermudagrass)? Are they at risk of being injured as well? <\/strong>This answer has two big factors worth consideration:<\/p>\n a) Warm snaps, such as the temperatures observed on the week of Jan 5th<\/sup> in some parts of the state, may have indicated adequate conditions for germination of these plants. If that happened, plants would likely have gone back into dormancy with the latest colder temperatures, then would rely on what is left of their energy storage in their root systems to regrow during springtime. In early spring, once these stands start to regrow, I highly recommend assessing fields for potential winter loss issues so they can be addressed through replanting if needed. Depending on the level of damage observed, in most cases, proper nutrient management through adequate fertilization and appropriate grazing or cutting strategies (including regrowth interval and stubble height) supports stand restoration.<\/p>\n b) It depends on the management you have implemented in the previous season. Their energy storage and K levels will be of extreme importance for withstanding challenging conditions, especially if warmer snaps cause them to germinate outside adequate periods and the plants have to recover and regrow later, as mentioned in the previous bullet point (a).<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":" By Liliane Silva, Forages Specialist, Clemson University Cool-season forages are widely used in South Carolina forage-livestock operations. In the upstate region, most operations rely on tall fescue stands as the basis of their forage systems, either planted in monoculture or mixed with cool- and warm-season species. Statewide, we also rely on cool-season annual forages […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4095,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"inline_featured_image":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[122668],"tags":[],"coauthors":[122660],"class_list":["post-257","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-forage-and-pasture-management"],"fimg_url":false,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/257","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4095"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=257"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/257\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=257"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=257"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=257"},{"taxonomy":"author","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/coauthors?post=257"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":254,"date":"2026-01-22T22:32:34","date_gmt":"2026-01-22T22:32:34","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/?p=254"},"modified":"2026-04-16T17:41:25","modified_gmt":"2026-04-16T17:41:25","slug":"cool-season-forage-mixtures-for-winter-grazing-in-south-carolina","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/cool-season-forage-mixtures-for-winter-grazing-in-south-carolina\/","title":{"rendered":"Cool-season forage mixtures for winter grazing in South Carolina"},"content":{"rendered":" Liliane Silva, Forages Specialist<\/p>\n <\/p>\n Nitrate is a naturally occurring component in plants, and its accumulation is usually associated with plant stress conditions (e.g., prolonged drought). When plants grow slowly, they continue to uptake nitrates, but these do not convert to proteins and amino acids, so there is a buildup of nitrates in the plant. For example, after a drought-ending rainfall event, it is recommended to wait around 7-10 days before allowing animals to graze an area. Nitrate concentrations may be high after a prolonged drought, and it takes several days for plants to convert those into amino acids and proteins. Generally, forage crops that receive high nitrogen fertilization are more prone to contain high nitrate concentrations, in addition to some species that naturally accumulate higher nitrate levels. Properly managing forage fields and livestock consumption when there is an occurrence of conditions that can elevate the nitrate buildup in plants is recommended to avoid nitrate toxicity in livestock.<\/p>\n High nitrate levels in the animal diet increase nitrite levels in the bloodstream, which binds with hemoglobin, preventing normal oxygen transference. Signs of acute nitrate toxicity may include rapid and difficult breathing, rapid pulse, tremors, staggering, collapse and death. A key diagnostic feature of acute toxicity is dark brown blood color, however, in most of these cases, treatment is not practical due to the rapid evolution of the symptoms. Therefore, understanding how to reduce the risk of nitrate toxicity occurrence and how to identify symptoms and test the forage is crucial. In terms of management practices for forage fields, utilizing split applications of the full rate of N inorganic fertilizer and properly replenishing the system with nutrients needed by plants will support proper growth rate and improve plant use efficiency. In addition, livestock should not graze areas where there may be nitrate buildup during a prolonged dry period or after a frost event. Managing the grazing event to avoid exposition and providing supplements (e.g., cottonseed) or low-nitrate roughage before turning animals into pasture is recommended.<\/p>\n When harvesting the forage to conserve it, the drying process does not decrease nitrates.\u00a0 In this situation, hay may need to be diluted in the diet with other low-nitrate forage. If harvested and done correctly, ensiling [silage or \u2018wet hay\u2019 (haylage)] is a great way to decrease the potential for nitrate toxicity in forage crops. If high-nitrate forage cannot be avoided, ensiling should be considered. To prevent nitrate toxicity, forages within fields prone to high nitrate concentrations should be tested. There are commercial nitrate test kits available that can be used in the field. Values greater than 2,500 ppm in forage for beef cattle are considered moderate or high in nitrate concentration, and samples should be tested in commercial laboratories. These results will help to determine when it is safe to have animals grazing a particular field after plants have had time to dilute their concentrations after a rainfall event, for example, or even to properly develop rations that can support nitrate dilution to feed animals. For testing nitrate concentrations in forage samples, consult your local extension agent, who will be able to direct you to available nitrate tests to use or to which commercial laboratories to send samples.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":" Liliane Silva, Forages Specialist Nitrate is a naturally occurring component in plants, and its accumulation is usually associated with plant stress conditions (e.g., prolonged drought). When plants grow slowly, they continue to uptake nitrates, but these do not convert to proteins and amino acids, so there is a buildup of nitrates in the plant. […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4095,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"inline_featured_image":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[122668],"tags":[],"coauthors":[122660],"class_list":["post-252","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-forage-and-pasture-management"],"fimg_url":false,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/252","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4095"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=252"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/252\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=252"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=252"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=252"},{"taxonomy":"author","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/coauthors?post=252"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":242,"date":"2025-09-20T20:02:55","date_gmt":"2025-09-20T20:02:55","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/?p=242"},"modified":"2026-04-16T17:49:19","modified_gmt":"2026-04-16T17:49:19","slug":"bermudagrass-stem-maggot-overview-and-mitigation-strategies-for-south-carolina","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/bermudagrass-stem-maggot-overview-and-mitigation-strategies-for-south-carolina\/","title":{"rendered":"Bermudagrass stem maggot overview and mitigation strategies for South Carolina"},"content":{"rendered":" The bermudagrass stem maggot [BSM; Atherigona reversura Villeneuve<\/em> (Diptera: Muscidae)] is an invasive species in the southeastern USA. This insect was first reported in California in 2009 and in Georgia in 2010, but it is native to South Asia. It is unclear how BSM was introduced to the United States. The suspicion is that the pest arrived via cargo ships from international shipments, based on the geographical location of these early reports. The BSM prefers warm and humid climates, and its damage occurs at the last node of the stem where the leaves emerge because, after hatching, the maggots feed on the plant apical meristems, causing the leaves above the feeding area to die (Figure 1). The discoloration of the upper leaves causes the stand to look like there has been a light frost. If no control is conducted, the damage can drastically reduce forage yields. However, the BSM damage is often misidentified as nutrient deficiency, leaf spot, etc. The chlorosis due to BSM damage is restricted to the top two to three leaves, and the damaged leaves can be easily pulled from the stems; often, it is possible to see signs of insect feeding, decay or the actual maggot at the end inside the removed stem.<\/p>\n Figure 1. Damage caused by bermudagrass stem maggot (Atherigona reversura<\/em>). Sources: Will Hudson, University of Georgia, Bugwood.org<\/a> (left) and Liliane Silva, Clemson University (right).<\/strong><\/p>\n <\/p>\n Bermudagrasses (Cynodon dactylon<\/em>) and stargrasses (C. nlemfuensis<\/em>) are the only hosts of this insect pest in the United States. The entire life cycle of BSM lasts about 21 days, with multiple generations in one year, making control difficult. The life cycle of the maggot starts when the fly lays an egg on the bermudagrass leaf. The larva emerges 2 to 3 days after and starts to feed on the apical meristem and remains there until it moves to the soil for pupation. After 7 to 10 days, the new adult emerges and lives for 14 to 21 days. When bermudagrass is mowed, viable larvae are likely to move to the soil for pupation, which results in a flush of new flies approximately 7 to 10 days after the harvest occurs (Figure 2). Unfortunately, it is still unclear where BSM overwinters and how they manage to continue to return and spread (Baxter et al., 2014).<\/p>\n Figure 2. Proposed life cycle for the bermudagrass stem maggot with respect to a typical bermudagrass hay growth period. Adapted from Baxter et al. 2024.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n No scouting has been developed for the larvae or pupae stages, and sweep nets are the best option to scout the adult fly in the field (Baxter et al, 2019). The adult flies tend to stay low in the canopy, not flying above 18 inches from the soil surface. The recommendation for scouting is to swing the new deep into the canopy at least 20 swings to collect the samples, and the ideal time is around 11:00 am, since the dew will be dried. Then, transfer the sweep sample to a plastic bag and place it in the freezer for 10 minutes before pouring it over a solid color surface to count the adult BSM flies. If there are at least 20 BSM flies in the sample, then mitigation strategies should start.<\/p>\n Only adult BSM flies can be suppressed through chemical applications, and it is virtually impossible to control an entire population of BSM in a field. The goal is to suppress the populations to reduce losses during regrowth and forage accumulation. Pyrethroid insecticide should be applied at the recommended rate at 7 to 10 days after harvest, and a second application should be done 7 to 10 days after the first application. This strategy targets the population that may emerge after the first application due to the life cycle of the insect. Additionally, malathion, carbaryl, chlorantraniliprole, and spinosad are not effective at controlling the BSM (Baxter et al., 2019). Insecticide application should be conducted in the morning before the dew dries, when flies are most active, with at least 12 to 15 gal\/acre and the boom height set low to optimize product penetration into the canopy. Research has shown that forage production reduction usually occurs from July through September, and the BSM population rarely reaches damaging levels before July (Baxter et al., 2019). It is not economical to spray to suppress BSM every harvest, so the decision to spray should be made when there are expected losses in production due to its damage during the season. There are no effective systemic insecticides approved for use in pastures or hay crops; therefore, larval chemical suppression is not possible.<\/p>\n Management practices can be used to try to reduce losses caused by BSM. If BSM damage is observed in the field near the harvest date (within 7 days or so), it is recommended to cut. If a field is 6 to 8 inches and showing BSM damage symptoms, then the field should be grazed or cut before spraying chemicals to optimize the product to reach into the canopy; however, fields < 8-10 inches may not have sufficient material to be baled, therefore, if possible, it is ideal to graze it to remove the material from the field. Then, plan to apply timely treatment in the field for BSM suppression for the next harvest. Well-managed bermudagrass stands are generally less susceptible to BSM damage, and different varieties and breeding lines have shown different susceptibility levels to damage (Table 1).<\/p>\n Table 1. Typical yield loss from bermudagrass stem maggot damage on popular bermudagrass lines grown in the southeastern United States. Adapted from Baxter et al. 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