[{"id":313,"date":"2026-07-27T16:45:28","date_gmt":"2026-07-27T16:45:28","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/?p=313"},"modified":"2026-07-23T16:45:48","modified_gmt":"2026-07-23T16:45:48","slug":"nitrate-toxicity-in-forage-crops","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/nitrate-toxicity-in-forage-crops\/","title":{"rendered":"Nitrate toxicity in forage crops"},"content":{"rendered":"

Liliane Silva, Forages Specialist<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Nitrate is a naturally occurring component in plants, and its accumulation is usually associated with plant stress conditions (e.g., prolonged drought). When plants grow slowly, they continue to update nitrates, but these do not convert to proteins and amino acids, so there is a buildup of nitrates in the plant. For example, after a drought-ending rainfall event, it is recommended to wait around 7 days before allowing animals to graze an area. Nitrate concentrations may be high after a prolonged drought, and it takes several days for plants to convert those into amino acids and proteins. Generally, forage crops that receive high nitrogen fertilization are more prone to contain high nitrate concentrations, in addition to some species that naturally accumulate higher nitrate levels. Properly managing forage fields and livestock consumption when there is an occurrence of conditions that can elevate the nitrate buildup in plants is recommended to avoid nitrate toxicity in livestock.<\/p>\n

High nitrate levels in the animal diet increase nitrite levels in the bloodstream, which binds with hemoglobin, preventing normal oxygen transference. Signs of acute nitrate toxicity may include rapid and difficult breathing, rapid pulse, tremors, staggering, collapse and death. A key diagnostic feature of acute toxicity is dark brown blood color, however, in most of these cases, treatment is not practical due to the rapid evolution of the symptoms. Therefore, understanding how to reduce the risk of nitrate toxicity occurrence and how to identify symptoms and test the forage is crucial. In terms of management practices for forage fields, utilizing split applications of the full rate of N inorganic fertilizer and properly replenishing the system with nutrients needed by plants will support proper growth rate and improve plant use efficiency. In addition, livestock should not graze areas where there may be nitrate buildup during a prolonged dry period or after a frost event. Managing the grazing event to avoid exposition and providing supplements (e.g., cottonseed) or low-nitrate roughage before turning animals into pasture is recommended.<\/p>\n

When harvesting the forage to conserve it, the drying process does not decrease nitrates.\u00a0 In this situation, hay may need to be diluted in the diet with other low-nitrate forage. If harvested and done correctly, ensiling [silage or \u2018wet hay\u2019 (haylage)] is a great way to decrease the potential for nitrate toxicity in forage crops. If high nitrate forage cannot be avoided, ensiling should be considered. To prevent nitrate toxicity, forages within fields prone to high nitrate concentrations should be tested. There are commercial nitrate test kits available that can be used in the field. Values greater than 2,500 ppm in forage for beef cattle are considered moderate or high in nitrate concentration, and samples should be tested in commercial laboratories. These results will help to determine when it is safe to have animals grazing a particular field after plants have had time to dilute their concentrations after a rainfall event, for example, or even to properly develop rations that can support nitrate dilution to feed animals. For testing nitrate concentrations in forage samples, consult your local extension agent, who will be able to direct you to available nitrate tests to use or to which commercial laboratories to send samples.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Liliane Silva, Forages Specialist   Nitrate is a naturally occurring component in plants, and its accumulation is usually associated with plant stress conditions (e.g., prolonged drought). When plants grow slowly, they continue to update nitrates, but these do not convert to proteins and amino acids, so there is a buildup of nitrates in the plant. […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4095,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"inline_featured_image":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[1],"tags":[],"coauthors":[122660],"class_list":["post-313","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-uncategorized"],"fimg_url":false,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/313","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4095"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=313"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/313\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":314,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/313\/revisions\/314"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=313"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=313"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=313"},{"taxonomy":"author","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/coauthors?post=313"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":317,"date":"2026-07-23T16:49:28","date_gmt":"2026-07-23T16:49:28","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/?p=317"},"modified":"2026-07-23T16:49:28","modified_gmt":"2026-07-23T16:49:28","slug":"clemson-university-forage-livestock-systems-program-research-highlight-summary","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/clemson-university-forage-livestock-systems-program-research-highlight-summary\/","title":{"rendered":"Clemson University Forage-Livestock Systems Program – Research highlight summary"},"content":{"rendered":"

Using multi-species forage ecosystems to enhance production, diversify income and support environmental benefits in operations in South Carolina<\/strong><\/p>\n

The forage-livestock systems program is under Dr. Liliane Silva, Forages Specialist, and focuses on developing management strategies to improve forage production and quality, animal performance, profitability, and resilience of forage-livestock operations in South Carolina. Multidisciplinary efforts are being conducted in collaboration with researchers and educators from SC and the southeast region, including studies on grazing cover crops, improving nutrient cycling and carbon sequestration, developing beef cattle heifers on forage-based systems and silvopasture, among others. Utilizing multi-species forage mixtures enhances forage production and distribution while supporting soil fertility, animal performance, and environmental benefits. By adding forage legumes to pastures, there is organic nitrogen added to the systems, which also reduces the use of inorganic fertilizer. However, this requires proper management practices to be developed and successfully implemented to support the operation\u2019s feasibility. Then, silvopasture is a practice that combines forages, trees and livestock grazing to address land management challenges, animal productivity, and farm income diversification. Although it is not a new practice, it has been gaining interest over the last decades and properly managed silvopasture provides ecosystem services such as soil health improvement, habitat provision, animal welfare, carbon sequestration, water conservation improvement and diversification of producer revenue sources. Additional efforts led by Dr. Silva include research and outreach efforts statewide, besides written and recorded research-based educational materials provided to educators and producers in South Carolina.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Using multi-species forage ecosystems to enhance production, diversify income and support environmental benefits in operations in South Carolina The forage-livestock systems program is under Dr. Liliane Silva, Forages Specialist, and focuses on developing management strategies to improve forage production and quality, animal performance, profitability, and resilience of forage-livestock operations in South Carolina. Multidisciplinary efforts are […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4095,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"inline_featured_image":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[1],"tags":[],"coauthors":[122660],"class_list":["post-317","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-uncategorized"],"fimg_url":false,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/317","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4095"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=317"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/317\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":318,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/317\/revisions\/318"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=317"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=317"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=317"},{"taxonomy":"author","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/coauthors?post=317"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":306,"date":"2026-06-28T15:00:44","date_gmt":"2026-06-28T15:00:44","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/?p=306"},"modified":"2026-06-28T15:09:04","modified_gmt":"2026-06-28T15:09:04","slug":"stockpiled-bermudagrass-systems-help-to-fill-the-forage-gap-3","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/stockpiled-bermudagrass-systems-help-to-fill-the-forage-gap-3\/","title":{"rendered":"Stockpiled bermudagrass systems help to fill the forage gap"},"content":{"rendered":"

Stockpiling is a management practice that defers forage availability for use later. This practice helps to decrease costs associated with feeding hay in livestock operations. In the southeast U.S., perennial grasses such as bahiagrass and bermudagrass are used to close the forage gap in early fall and extend the grazing season. Stockpiled bermudagrass has moderate forage quality and represents an economical option to reduce feed purchase.<\/p>\n

Most forage systems are based on the use of bahiagrass or bermudagrass in the region. Once these species enter dormancy in early Fall, there is a forage gap in the farm until the cool-season forages are ready to be grazed. Stockpiling is a practice that allows for forage accumulation in the pasture for grazing later when growth is limited or null. Generally, the bermudagrass forage production period ranges from April through late September. To begin the stockpiling period, the recommendation is to graze or cut the field to 4-inch stubble height in late August. Then, apply around 50 lb of N and K and let the forage accumulate for 6 weeks. Grazing should be initiated around mid-October.<\/p>\n

The grazing management should be designed to optimize grazing efficiency. Rotational management can be used, but strip grazing is the most implemented. Strip grazing (Figure 1) consists of using temporary fencing to have animals graze an area for a short period of time and progressively moving them to the next strip ahead. This practice allows for the adjustment of the size of strips based on the forage mass available, allowing animals to spend 2 to 3 days in each strip optimizing the forage removal. When using strip grazing, it is essential to plan for the placement of water throughs and mineral feeders before the rotation is initiated. In terms of forage quality, stockpiled bermudagrass crude protein ranges from 8 to 12%, depending on the fertilization management implement.<\/p>\n

\"\"\u00a0\"\"<\/p>\n

Figure 1.\u00a0 Strip grazing stockpiled bermudagrass helps to close the forage gap in early fall.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Incorporating alfalfa into bermudagrass stands is an option to decrease reliance on nitrogen fertilizer while improving forage production and quality. Alfalfa is a perennial legume with high forage production and quality and has similar drainage and nutrient requirements to bermudagrass. Over the past decades, the development of newer varieties and improved management practices have contributed to the return of alfalfa to the region. Improving the forage quality available in fall months can help reduce the need for supplementation. Under stockpiled alfalfa-bermudagrass systems, crude protein averages range from 14 to 18% in early Fall and represent a viable option to meet nutrient requirements for different animal categories.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

Figure 2. Alfalfa-bermudagrass systems provide improved forage quality and can be stockpiled for grazing during Fall.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Stockpiling is a management practice that defers forage availability for use later. This practice helps to decrease costs associated with feeding hay in livestock operations. In the southeast U.S., perennial grasses such as bahiagrass and bermudagrass are used to close the forage gap in early fall and extend the grazing season. Stockpiled bermudagrass has moderate […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4095,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"inline_featured_image":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[122671,1],"tags":[122672],"coauthors":[122660],"class_list":["post-306","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-stockpiling","category-uncategorized","tag-stockpiling"],"fimg_url":false,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/306","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4095"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=306"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/306\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":309,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/306\/revisions\/309"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=306"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=306"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=306"},{"taxonomy":"author","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/coauthors?post=306"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":304,"date":"2026-06-28T14:51:16","date_gmt":"2026-06-28T14:51:16","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/?p=304"},"modified":"2026-06-28T15:09:57","modified_gmt":"2026-06-28T15:09:57","slug":"bermudagrass-stem-maggot-control","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/bermudagrass-stem-maggot-control\/","title":{"rendered":"Bermudagrass stem maggot control"},"content":{"rendered":"

By\u00a0Liliane Severino da Silva, Forages Specialist<\/p>\n

The bermudagrass stem maggot [BSM; Atherigona reversura Villeneuve<\/em> (Diptera: Muscidae)] is an invasive species in the southeastern USA. This insect was first reported in California in 2009 and in Georgia in 2010, but it is native to South Asia. It is unclear how BSM was introduced to the United States. The suspicion is that the pest arrived via cargo ships from international shipments, based on the geographical location of these early reports. The BSM prefers warm and humid climates, and its damage occurs at the last node of the stem where the leaves emerge because, after hatching, the maggots feed on the plant apical meristems, causing the leaves above the feeding area to die (Figure 1). The discoloration of the upper leaves causes the stand to look like there has been a light frost. If no control is conducted, the damage can drastically reduce forage yields. However, the BSM damage is often misidentified as nutrient deficiency, leaf spot, etc. The chlorosis due to BSM damage is restricted to the top two to three leaves, and the damaged leaves can be easily pulled from the stems; often, it is possible to see signs of insect feeding, decay or the actual maggot at the end inside the removed stem.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

Figure 1. Damage caused by bermudagrass stem maggot (Atherigona reversura<\/em>). Sources: Liliane Silva, Clemson University.<\/strong><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Bermudagrasses (Cynodon dactylon<\/em>) and stargrasses (C. nlemfuensis<\/em>) are the only hosts of this insect pest in the United States. The entire life cycle of BSM lasts about 21 days, with multiple generations in one year, making control difficult. The life cycle of the maggot starts when the fly lays an egg on the bermudagrass leaf. The larva emerges 2 to 3 days after and starts to feed on the apical meristem and remains there until it moves to the soil for pupation. After 7 to 10 days, the new adult emerges and lives for 14 to 21 days. When bermudagrass is mowed, viable larvae are likely to move to the soil for pupation, which results in a flush of new flies approximately 7 to 10 days after the harvest occurs (Figure 2). Unfortunately, it is still unclear where BSM overwinters and how they manage to continue to return and spread (Baxter et al., 2014).<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

Figure 2. Proposed life cycle for the bermudagrass stem maggot with respect to a typical bermudagrass hay growth period. Adapted from Baxter et al. 2024.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

No scouting has been developed for the larvae or pupae stages, and sweep nets are the best option to scout the adult fly in the field (Baxter et al, 2019). The adult flies tend to stay low in the canopy, not flying above 18 inches from the soil surface. The recommendation for scouting is to swing the new deep into the canopy at least 20 swings to collect the samples, and the ideal time is around 11:00 am, since the dew will be dried. Then, transfer the sweep sample to a plastic bag and place it in the freezer for 10 minutes before pouring it over a solid color surface to count the adult BSM flies. If there are at least 20 BSM flies in the sample, then mitigation strategies should start.<\/p>\n

Only adult BSM flies can be suppressed through chemical applications, and it is virtually impossible to control an entire population of BSM in a field. The goal is to suppress the populations to reduce losses during regrowth and forage accumulation. Pyrethroid insecticide should be applied at the recommended rate at 7 to 10 days after harvest, and a second application should be done 7 to 10 days after the first application. This strategy targets the population that may emerge after the first application due to the life cycle of the insect. Additionally, malathion, carbaryl, chlorantraniliprole, and spinosad are not effective at controlling the BSM (Baxter et al., 2019). Insecticide application should be conducted in the morning before the dew dries, when flies are most active, with at least 12 to 15 gal\/acre and the boom height set low to optimize product penetration into the canopy. Research has shown that forage production reduction usually occurs from July through September, and the BSM population rarely reaches damaging levels before July (Baxter et al., 2019). It is not economical to spray to suppress BSM every harvest, so the decision to spray should be made when there are expected losses in production due to its damage during the season. There are no effective systemic insecticides approved for use in pastures or hay crops; therefore, larval chemical suppression is not possible.<\/p>\n

Management practices can be used to try to reduce losses caused by BSM. If BSM damage is observed in the field near the harvest date (within 7 days or so), it is recommended to cut. If a field is 6 to 8 inches and showing BSM damage symptoms, then the field should be grazed or cut before spraying chemicals to optimize the product to reach into the canopy; however, fields < 8-10 inches may not have sufficient material to be baled, therefore, if possible, it is ideal to graze it to remove the material from the field. Then, plan to apply timely treatment in the field for BSM suppression for the next harvest. Well-managed bermudagrass stands are generally less susceptible to BSM damage, and different varieties and breeding lines have shown different susceptibility levels to damage (Table 1).<\/p>\n

Table 1. Typical yield loss from bermudagrass stem maggot damage on popular bermudagrass lines grown in the southeastern United States. Adapted from Baxter et al. (2024).<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
Variety<\/strong><\/td>\nRelative stem thickness\u00a0<\/strong>a<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a><\/td>\nTypical range in yield loss (% dry matter)\u00a0<\/strong>b<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Alicia<\/td>\nFine<\/td>\n30\u201360<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Coastal<\/td>\nFine<\/td>\n15\u201330<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Coastcross II<\/td>\nCoarse<\/td>\n0\u201315<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Newell<\/td>\nCoarse<\/td>\n0\u201310<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Russell<\/td>\nFine<\/td>\n20\u201340<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Tifton 44<\/td>\nFine<\/td>\n15\u201330<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Tifton 85<\/td>\nCoarse<\/td>\n0\u201320<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Seeded varieties<\/td>\nFine<\/td>\n30\u201360<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Experimental line 287<\/td>\nCoarse<\/td>\n0\u201310<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

 <\/p>\n

References<\/strong><\/p>\n

Baxter, L. L.,\u00a0Anderson, W. F.,\u00a0Hudson, W. G.,\u00a0Hancock, D. W.,\u00a0Prevatt, C. G., &\u00a0Moore, Z.\u00a0(2019).\u00a0Quantifying the damage potential of the bermudagrass stem maggot.\u00a0Crop Science<\/em>,\u00a059<\/strong>(5),\u00a02280\u20132286.\u00a0https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2135\/cropsci2019.04.0220<\/p>\n

Baxter, L. L., Anderson, W. F., Hudson, W. G., Rios, E. F., Bowling, C. H., Hancock, D. W., Gates, R. N., & Burt, J. C. (2024). Improved management of the bermudagrass stem maggot. Crop, Forage & Turfgrass Management, 10(1), e20269. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/cft2.20269<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

By\u00a0Liliane Severino da Silva, Forages Specialist The bermudagrass stem maggot [BSM; Atherigona reversura Villeneuve (Diptera: Muscidae)] is an invasive species in the southeastern USA. This insect was first reported in California in 2009 and in Georgia in 2010, but it is native to South Asia. It is unclear how BSM was introduced to the United […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4095,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"inline_featured_image":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[122669,1],"tags":[],"coauthors":[122660],"class_list":["post-304","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-pest-management","category-uncategorized"],"fimg_url":false,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/304","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4095"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=304"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/304\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":305,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/304\/revisions\/305"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=304"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=304"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=304"},{"taxonomy":"author","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/coauthors?post=304"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":177,"date":"2026-06-20T19:26:26","date_gmt":"2026-06-20T19:26:26","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/?p=177"},"modified":"2026-07-23T16:50:52","modified_gmt":"2026-07-23T16:50:52","slug":"animal-production-and-welfare-benefits-under-silvopasture-systems","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/animal-production-and-welfare-benefits-under-silvopasture-systems\/","title":{"rendered":"Animal production and welfare benefits under silvopasture systems"},"content":{"rendered":"

Silvopasture systems are defined as the integration of tree, forage, and livestock in the same area (Figure 1). These systems allow for income diversification through forestry and livestock production, while optimizing resource use for environmental, economic, and social benefits of operations. In the Southeast region, heat stress is a major issue to livestock, and it affects animal performance and health, especially during the summer months. Silvopasture systems provide shade through the tree component which helps to lower temperatures and create a microclimate that improves conditions to livestock grazing these systems.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

Figure 1.<\/strong> Silvopasture system in Colleton County, SC. Credits: Janet Steele.<\/p>\n

Management practices in silvopasture systems<\/strong><\/p>\n

Silvopasture systems offer a holistic approach to sustainable livestock production, promoting animal welfare, supporting animal and plant production, and mitigating the impacts of heat stress on livestock. Through proper establishment, integration and management, these systems can support enhanced resilience and sustainability of agricultural systems amid changing climatic conditions.<\/p>\n

Silvopasture systems require proper management according to their tree species composition, spatial arrangement, and planting density once these factors directly impact the solar radiation intercepted. Regular management of trees is crucial as they mature and shade increases, therefore it is important to ensure there will be proper sunlight reaching the forage canopy.<\/p>\n

The grazing management practices implemented also play a vital role in proper forage regrowth, quality, harvest and utilization. For silvopasture systems, the recommendation is to use rotational stocking once it allows for proper forage regrowth interval and better forage harvest and excreta distribution in the area. In the Southeast, during summer months, the high temperatures present a challenge for animal health, performance and welfare. The incorporation of trees into pastures allows for microclimate to be established and help animals cope with high heat indexes.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Animal welfare and productivity<\/strong><\/p>\n

Animal health and welfare are crucial for livestock production since they directly impact performance, quality, and profitability of operations. In recent years, consumers\u2019 interest on the food production process, rastreability, and carbon footprint of activity has increased which also impacts their choice and purchase patterns.<\/p>\n

In livestock farming, heat stress is a significant challenge during the warm season. Silvopasture systems represents a sustainable alternative for animals to cope with high heat indexes and they support productivity and animal welfare once the shading provided creates a microclimate allow for temperature reduction. Therefore, silvopasture systems are an effective strategy for adapting livestock production to challenges related to climate change while supporting ecosystem services delivery. These systems diversify feed sources by integrating trees, shrubs, and grasses to provide a varied diet for livestock mitigate thermal stress and sustain consistent levels of livestock productivity.<\/p>\n

Impact of heat stress on livestock<\/strong><\/p>\n

Heat stress induces various physiological, behavioral and reproductive responses in animals, impacting their welfare, and health. The symptoms related to heat stress include increased panting, body temperature, respiration rate, and heart rate. Thus, heat stress reduces feed intake and immune function, thereby affecting growth rate, feed conversion efficiency, reproduction, and, in lactating animals, it impacts milk production and quality, for example. Shade is an ally for livestock to cope with heat stress. Silvopasture systems offer natural shade, which helps regulate microclimatic conditions by reducing wind speed, solar radiation levels, and thermal stress indexes during high heat periods. In these systems, animal thermal comfort improves during the warmest hours of the day due to lower air temperatures and reduced temperature-humidity index (THI) compared to conventional open pasture systems. Temperature-humidity index is a measure that combines air temperature and relative humidity to quantify the level of heat stress experienced by living organisms.<\/p>\n

In conclusion, silvopasture systems are a valuable option for livestock farmers to address high temperatures, improve animal health, and enhance the sustainability of their operations. By implementing effective management practices that optimize resource use, silvopasture becomes a financially viable strategy for sustainable livestock production.<\/p>\n

Written by<\/strong><\/p>\n

*Daniela Rodriguez, M.S. student, Animal and Veterinary Sciences Department<\/strong><\/p>\n

*Liliane Silva, Forages Specialist, Animal and Veterinary Sciences Department<\/strong><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Silvopasture systems are defined as the integration of tree, forage, and livestock in the same area (Figure 1). These systems allow for income diversification through forestry and livestock production, while optimizing resource use for environmental, economic, and social benefits of operations. In the Southeast region, heat stress is a major issue to livestock, and it […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4095,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"inline_featured_image":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[122670],"tags":[],"coauthors":[122660],"class_list":["post-177","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-silvopasture"],"fimg_url":false,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/177","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4095"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=177"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/177\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":319,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/177\/revisions\/319"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=177"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=177"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=177"},{"taxonomy":"author","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/coauthors?post=177"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":298,"date":"2026-04-20T20:35:15","date_gmt":"2026-04-20T20:35:15","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/?p=298"},"modified":"2026-04-20T20:35:15","modified_gmt":"2026-04-20T20:35:15","slug":"cooping-with-high-fertilizer-costs-in-forage-systems","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/cooping-with-high-fertilizer-costs-in-forage-systems\/","title":{"rendered":"Cooping with high fertilizer costs in forage systems"},"content":{"rendered":"

\"\"<\/p>\n

By Liliane Silva, Clemson Forages Specialist<\/strong><\/h3>\n

M<\/strong>anagement practices are crucial in determining forage production and quality in forage systems. Among them, fertilization is essential to supply nutrients needed by plants. Over the past decades, the fluctuation of costs of fertilizers has elevated the importance of improving nutrient use efficiency, while also seeking alternative strategies to reduce off-farm inputs into forage systems. Understanding the main points for improving nutrient use efficiency and distribution in forage systems can help improve feasibility and sustainability in forage systems. Soil testing<\/strong> is a crucial management tool to monitor soil fertility and pH and allows for proper nutrient amounts to be applied as needed by forage crops. Routine soil testing can help save money on lime and fertilizer applications, while also decreasing nutrient losses and runoff. Soil testing should be conducted at least every two years and, in order to have reliable information to develop your fertilization program, soil samples must be collected correctly.<\/p>\n

The general recommendation is to collect 15 to 20 samples to 6 inches depth in a field up to 10 acres. Samples should be collected in a zigue-zague <\/em>pattern throughout the area and placed in a bucket, then homogenized prior to sending up to a pint to the lab for analysis. Besides providing proper nutrient recommendations, routine soil<\/em> testing allows for the maintenance of adequate soil pH. Improper soil pH will impact nutrient availability and root development affecting overall forage stand establishment, production, and persistence. Lime is frequently used to increase soil pH and may be required to be applied 6-8 months ahead of the establishment of a new forage stand, depending on the current soil pH. Typically, by raising the soil pH, nutrients, as N and P, increase their availability. However, the target soil pH varies with the forage crop being used and, in general, legumes have higher nutrient and pH requirements than warm-season grasses, for example.<\/p>\n

Once you have your soil report recommendations in hand, make sure to choose the fertilizer source that best fits your needs, so you do not apply unnecessary nutrients. Commercial fertilizer blends that supply N, P, K, and micronutrients have specific combinations and can be a source to apply more than needed nutrients for your area which represents increased costs. For example, if your soil test report shows that no P is needed, then you should select a fertilizer blend that has no P. Your local Extension agent can help you choose the appropriate fertilizer source to use based on your needs. Overall, the use of organic fertilizer<\/em> <\/strong>sources (ex. animal manure, chicken litter) has been increasing over the last decades due to attractive costs and high local availability. When using organic amendments, in order to properly meet forage crops\u2019 needs, it is important to know the fertilizer composition and understand the rate to what the nutrient (s) is released. Some organic fertilizers may also be a source to increase organic matter in the soil overtime which is particular important to improve soil fertility and resilience.<\/p>\n

For any source of fertilizer<\/strong>, the nutrient composition of that source, time, and rate of application will impact the effectiveness of its use and have environmental implications. Generally, when we are developing our fertilization plan for a given forage, the determination of how much fertilizer needs to be applied will depend on the nutrient levels available in the soil and the expected forage production during that growing season. For N fertilizer, it is recommended to split apply the total rate over the growing season aiming to optimize the absorption by plants and reduce runoff and leaching to water bodies.<\/p>\n

Management practices and the choice of species<\/em><\/strong> will also have an important role in the nutrient input required. Improved forages, such as bermudagrass, and legumes may have higher fertilizer needs than bahiagrass, for example. However, it is important to properly address their needs based on the management that is applied. Intensity and frequency of grazing or cutting for hay production may require different levels of nutrients to be replenished based on the amount being exported. Under grazing, rotational management<\/em> can be an alley to help with nutrient distribution throughout a pasture once animals stay for limited periods of time in a given area and avoid creating areas where animal excreta are accumulated which often happens on shaded and waterer areas on pastures under continuous stocking.<\/p>\n

Thus, the incorporation of legumes into forage systems can help with inputting N through biological fixation and increase soil fertility. Legumes are only able to fix N in association with specific bacteria which requires the seeds to be inoculated. Then, N fixation ranges from 40 to 100 lb N\/acre but, it will depend on the forage yield. The organic N fixed can be available for companion grasses in mixtures or to the subsequent grass crop. The use of legumes in forages systems has been increasing aiming for improved forage production, nutrient cycling, and animal performance, especially in low-input systems where there is little to no replenishment of nutrients routinely.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

By Liliane Silva, Clemson Forages Specialist Management practices are crucial in determining forage production and quality in forage systems. Among them, fertilization is essential to supply nutrients needed by plants. Over the past decades, the fluctuation of costs of fertilizers has elevated the importance of improving nutrient use efficiency, while also seeking alternative strategies to […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4095,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"inline_featured_image":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[1],"tags":[],"coauthors":[122660],"class_list":["post-298","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-uncategorized"],"fimg_url":false,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/298","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4095"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=298"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/298\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=298"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=298"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=298"},{"taxonomy":"author","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/coauthors?post=298"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":296,"date":"2026-04-20T20:10:14","date_gmt":"2026-04-20T20:10:14","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/?p=296"},"modified":"2026-04-20T20:10:39","modified_gmt":"2026-04-20T20:10:39","slug":"managing-fescue-hay-during-the-2026-spring-drought","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/blogs.clemson.edu\/forageslab\/managing-fescue-hay-during-the-2026-spring-drought\/","title":{"rendered":"Managing Fescue Hay During the 2026 Spring Drought"},"content":{"rendered":"

\"\"<\/p>\n

By\u00a0<\/strong>Christopher LeMaster, Clemson Extension Livestock Agent and\u00a0<\/strong>Dr. Liliane Silva, Clemson Extension Forage Specialist<\/strong><\/p>\n

Following a dry fall and winter, much of our region is now classified in Extreme Drought (D3)<\/strong>. For a cool-season grass like tall fescue, which relies on spring moisture for the bulk of its annual forage production, this rainfall deficit is a primary concern for the upcoming hay season. Additionally, producers are managing this drought alongside a 50% increase in fertilizer and fuel costs<\/strong>. When input prices are high and projected yields are low due to weather-related challenges, management strategies must be adjusted to focus on efficiency and stand persistence.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Harvesting and Clipping Strategies<\/strong><\/p>\n

In a dry spring, there is rarely a single “correct” answer for when to harvest. Instead, there are some considerations to be made:<\/p>\n